membrane

This facilitates a process called autophagy, which occurs routinely in our cells: Damaged or unnecessary proteins are wrapped up in small membrane vesicles and safely degraded with enzymes - a natural recycling process, in effect.

Cells with elevated OPA1 develop tightly packed, more numerous folds in their mitochondrial membranes, known as cristae, which trap cytochrome c.

ROS can also harm fats that form the outer membranes of cells, contributing to cell death and tissue injury.

The model reproduces fine details of neuron structure, synapse activity, and electrical signaling across cell membranes.

In humans, they are essential for immune defense, while in bacteria they often act as toxins that puncture cell membranes.