cause and effect

Clear cause-and-effect situations like this are nearly impossible to recreate in controlled experiments, giving researchers a rare natural experiment.

The observational study did not prove causation, or a direct cause-and-effect relationship, but could only link associations between music and lower dementia risks, Jaffa said.

"Also, while the association we found raises safety concerns about the widely used supplement, our study cannot prove a direct cause-and-effect relationship. This means more research is needed to test melatonin's safety for the heart."

Importantly, it is an observational study, an analysis of previously collected information; therefore, it cannot prove a direct cause-and-effect relationship between any of the variables reviewed.

Nath said this type of sophisticated, long-range study is important for public health providers and policymakers alike because it provides fresh evidence of a cause-and-effect link between societal risk factors — such as pressure to undergo conversion therapy and a lack of access to affordable mental health services — and future crises.