cyberspace

But any suggestion of Nato hitting Russian targets – kinetically, as opposed to digitally in cyberspace – would be incredibly risky and escalatory.

The cyberspace regulator started loosening rules for companies that wished to tap computing power abroad for training AI.

In two further statements, Mr Collins detailed threats posed by China in cyberspace and to the UK's democratic institutions but avoided labelling the country "a threat to national security".

"In recent years, the United States has aggressively pursued cyber hegemony, repeatedly trampling on international cyberspace rules," the ministry said in its statement.

Meanwhile, Russia is a "capable and irresponsible threat actor in cyberspace", with pro-Moscow "hacktivist" groups operating outside formal state control seeking to target Western nations and organisations.